What are the treatments for various bacterial and viral infections, including Bacteroides, Bordetella pertussis, Legionella pneumophila, Helicobacter pylori, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, HIV, and others?

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Board-Relevant Information: Bacterial and Viral Infections

Bacteroides fragilis

Bacteroides fragilis is a key anaerobic pathogen causing intra-abdominal, pelvic, and soft tissue infections with high propensity for abscess formation.

Clinical Significance

  • Primary pathogen in intra-abdominal infections including peritonitis, intra-abdominal abscess, and liver abscess 1
  • Causes gynecologic infections (endometritis, endomyometritis, tubo-ovarian abscess, postsurgical vaginal cuff infection) 1
  • Responsible for skin and skin structure infections, bacterial septicemia, bone and joint infections, CNS infections (meningitis, brain abscess), lower respiratory tract infections (pneumonia, empyema, lung abscess), and endocarditis 1
  • 47% of wound infections following intestinal surgery develop complications, usually abscess formation 2

Treatment

  • First-line: Metronidazole for all Bacteroides fragilis infections 1, 3
  • Metronidazole achieves serum levels several times the minimal inhibitory concentration and penetrates well into CSF 3
  • For lung abscess or documented anaerobes: Add clindamycin or metronidazole to the primary regimen 4
  • For multidrug-resistant B. fragilis (resistant to metronidazole, beta-lactams, carbapenems): Linezolid achieves microbiological cure 5
  • Surgical drainage required for abscesses; metronidazole does not obviate need for aspiration or drainage 1

Abscess Formation and Healing

Anaerobic Abscess Management

  • Bacteroides species have unusual propensity for abscess formation in wound infections following intestinal surgery 2
  • Surgical drainage is mandatory in conjunction with antimicrobial therapy 1
  • For liver abscess due to amebiasis or bacteria, metronidazole therapy does not eliminate need for aspiration or drainage 1

Bordetella pertussis

Clinical Presentation

  • Median cough duration: 51 days when B. pertussis is the sole agent 6
  • 82% of single-agent B. pertussis infections present with spasmodic cough for ≥21 days (WHO clinical criteria for pertussis) 6
  • Co-infections with other respiratory pathogens extend cough duration to approximately 60 days 6

Diagnosis and Treatment

  • Laboratory confirmation is essential for rational treatment; clinical diagnosis alone is insufficient 6
  • Antibiotic treatment rates vary significantly by region (12-34% in studies) 6
  • Acellular vaccines more efficient against serious disease than whole cell vaccines 6

Legionella pneumophila

Treatment in Community-Acquired Pneumonia

  • Severe CAP requiring ICU admission: Beta-lactam (ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, or ampicillin-sulbactam) PLUS azithromycin or respiratory fluoroquinolone (moxifloxacin or levofloxacin 750 mg/day) 4
  • Coverage for Legionella is mandatory in severe pneumonia along with pneumococcus and H. influenzae 4
  • Macrolides or fluoroquinolones provide adequate Legionella coverage 4

HIV-Infected Patients

  • ICU treatment: IV beta-lactam plus IV azithromycin OR IV respiratory fluoroquinolone 4
  • Fluoroquinolones should be used cautiously if TB suspected but not being treated with four-drug therapy 4

Helicobacter pylori

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence


Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Clinical Characteristics

  • Median cough duration: 23 days as single agent 6
  • Only 26% present with spasmodic cough ≥21 days (lower than B. pertussis) 6
  • Common cause of atypical pneumonia in HIV-infected population, likely underreported 7

Treatment

  • First-line alternative (doxycycline-resistant): Azithromycin 500 mg orally day 1, then 250 mg once daily for 5 days 8
  • Alternative options: Levofloxacin 750 mg orally or IV once daily for 7-14 days OR moxifloxacin 400 mg orally or IV once daily for 7-14 days 8
  • For hospitalized patients with bacterial pneumonia: Add azithromycin to treat M. pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae 4
  • Pregnant women should avoid doxycycline and fluoroquinolones; use macrolides instead 8

Antiviral Drugs Overview

HIV Drugs

NRTIs (Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors)

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Protease Inhibitors

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Maraviroc (CCR5 Antagonist)

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Fusion Inhibitors and Integrase Inhibitors

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Interferons (Alpha, Beta, Gamma)

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Ribavirin

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Sofosbuvir

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Simeprevir

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Acyclovir, Valacyclovir, Famciclovir

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Ganciclovir, Valganciclovir

  • For CMV infection in HIV-infected children: Treatment duration and dosing per CDC/NIH guidelines 4
  • Used for CMV infection in outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy 4

Foscarnet

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence

Cidofovir

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence


Prion Disease

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence


Delirium

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence


Dementia

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence


Klebsiella pneumoniae

Clinical Context

  • Common co-pathogen with Bacteroides fragilis in wound infections following intestinal surgery 2
  • Requires aerobic antimicrobial coverage in mixed aerobic-anaerobic infections 1

Enterobacter species

Clinical Context

  • Co-pathogen with Bacteroides fragilis in postoperative wound infections 2
  • Requires appropriate aerobic coverage in addition to anaerobic therapy 1

Serratia marcescens

No specific guideline or drug information provided in evidence


Haemophilus influenzae

Treatment in Severe CAP

  • Severe CAP therapy must cover H. influenzae along with pneumococcus and Legionella 4
  • Beta-lactams active against DRSP (drug-resistant S. pneumoniae) provide adequate H. influenzae coverage 4
  • For HIV-infected patients with severe pneumonia: IV beta-lactam (ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, or ampicillin-sulbactam) plus macrolide or fluoroquinolone 4

Head and Neck Infections

Specific Infections

  • Complicated sinusitis: Treated with outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy 4
  • Chronic otitis and/or mastoiditis: Managed with OPAT 4
  • Brain or epidural abscess: Requires combination antimicrobial therapy and surgical drainage 4

HIV/AIDS

Bacterial Pneumonia in HIV

  • Outpatient treatment: Respiratory fluoroquinolone (moxifloxacin, levofloxacin 750 mg/day, or gemifloxacin) for penicillin-allergic patients or recent beta-lactam exposure 4
  • Macrolide monotherapy cannot be routinely recommended due to increasing pneumococcal resistance 4
  • Patients on MAC prophylaxis should never receive macrolide monotherapy for empiric bacterial pneumonia treatment 4

Non-ICU Inpatient Treatment

  • IV beta-lactam (ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, or ampicillin-sulbactam) plus macrolide 4
  • Doxycycline is alternative to macrolide 4

ICU Treatment

  • IV beta-lactam plus IV azithromycin OR IV respiratory fluoroquinolone 4
  • For penicillin allergy: Aztreonam plus IV respiratory fluoroquinolone 4

Pseudomonas Coverage in HIV

  • If risk factors present: Antipneumococcal, antipseudomonal beta-lactam (piperacillin-tazobactam, cefepime, imipenem, or meropenem) plus ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin 750 mg 4
  • Alternative: Beta-lactam plus aminoglycoside and azithromycin 4

MRSA Coverage in HIV

  • If risk factors present: Add vancomycin (possibly with clindamycin) or linezolid 4

Atypical Pneumonia in HIV

  • C. pneumoniae, M. pneumoniae, Coxiella burnetii, and Legionella species are underreported in HIV population due to lack of diagnostic strategies and declining immunity 7
  • Increased awareness needed for rapid diagnosis and improved quality of life 7

References

Research

Metronidazole treatment of Bacteroides fragilis infections.

The American journal of the medical sciences, 1980

Guideline

Guideline Directed Topic Overview

Dr.Oracle Medical Advisory Board & Editors, 2025

Research

Anaerobic sepsis due to multidrug-resistant Bacteroides fragilis: microbiological cure and clinical response with linezolid therapy.

Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, 2005

Guideline

Alternative Treatment Options for Doxycycline-Resistant Mycoplasma Infections

Praxis Medical Insights: Practical Summaries of Clinical Guidelines, 2025

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Professional Medical Disclaimer

This information is intended for healthcare professionals. Any medical decision-making should rely on clinical judgment and independently verified information. The content provided herein does not replace professional discretion and should be considered supplementary to established clinical guidelines. Healthcare providers should verify all information against primary literature and current practice standards before application in patient care. Dr.Oracle assumes no liability for clinical decisions based on this content.

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