What is Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate (SPS)?

Medical Advisory BoardAll articles are reviewed for accuracy by our Medical Advisory Board
Educational purpose only • Exercise caution as content is pending human review
Article Review Status
Submitted
Under Review
Approved

Last updated: April 11, 2025 • View editorial policy

Personalize

Help us tailor your experience

Which best describes you? Your choice helps us use language that's most understandable for you.

From the Guidelines

Sodium polystyrene sulfonate should not be used as a first-line treatment for hyperkalemia due to its variable onset of action, nonselective binding properties, and association with serious adverse events, including intestinal ischemia and colonic necrosis, as reported in the 2021 study published in the Mayo Clinic Proceedings 1.

Mechanism of Action and Characteristics

Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS) is a cation-exchange resin that binds potassium ions in exchange for sodium ions in the gastrointestinal tract, specifically in the colon, as described in the study 1. It has a nonselective mechanism, also binding calcium and magnesium ions, which can lead to hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia. The medication can be administered orally or rectally, with the oral suspension having poor palatability.

Adverse Events and Efficacy

The use of SPS is associated with significant adverse events, including a doubling in the risk of hospitalization for serious gastrointestinal events and a reported overall mortality rate of 33%, highlighting the need for caution when considering its use 1. Its short-term efficacy is also inconsistent, and there is a lack of clinical studies supporting its long-term use in patients with hyperkalemia. The onset of action is variable, ranging from several hours to days, which can complicate the management of hyperkalemia.

Clinical Considerations

Given the potential risks and the availability of alternative treatments with more favorable safety profiles, such as patiromer and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate, the use of sodium polystyrene sulfonate should be approached with caution and considered only when other options are not available or appropriate 1. Patients on SPS require close monitoring for signs of gastrointestinal adverse events and electrolyte imbalances. The medication's administration should be carefully managed to avoid interactions with other oral medications.

Alternatives and Future Directions

Alternatives like patiromer and sodium zirconium cyclosilicate offer more selective potassium binding and potentially safer profiles, as outlined in the comparison in the Mayo Clinic Proceedings study 1. These alternatives may provide better options for the management of hyperkalemia, considering the morbidity, mortality, and quality of life outcomes.

From the FDA Drug Label

Sodium polystyrene sulfonate is a benzene, diethenyl-polymer, with ethenylbenzene, sulfonated, sodium salt and has the following structural formula: The drug is a golden brown, fine, odorless powdered form of sodium polystyrene sulfonate, a cation-exchange resin prepared in the sodium phase with an in vitro exchange capacity of approximately 3.1 mEq ( in vivo approximately 1 mEq) of potassium per gram. The sodium content is approximately 100 mg (4.1 mEq) per gram of the drug. It can be administered orally or rectally as an enema. One gram of sodium polystyrene sulfonate contains 4.1 mEq of sodium.

The main component of sodium polystyrene sulfonate is a cation-exchange resin.

  • The chemical structure is a benzene, diethenyl-polymer, with ethenylbenzene, sulfonated, sodium salt.
  • The physical form is a golden brown, fine, odorless powder.
  • The sodium content is approximately 100 mg (4.1 mEq) per gram of the drug.
  • The administration routes are oral or rectal as an enema.
  • The exchange capacity is approximately 3.1 mEq (in vivo approximately 1 mEq) of potassium per gram 2.

From the Research

Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate Overview

  • Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS) is a common treatment modality for hyperkalemia, a condition that occurs frequently in an inpatient setting 3.
  • SPS is a cation exchange resin that can be administered orally or rectally to help lower serum potassium levels 3, 4.

Efficacy of Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate

  • Studies have shown that SPS can effectively reduce serum potassium levels, with a greater proportion of patients achieving normokalemia with higher doses (60-g oral dose) 3.
  • A retrospective study found that SPS administration resulted in an average decrease in serum potassium levels of 0.93 mEq/L 4.
  • Another study compared the efficacy of SPS with sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (SZC) and found that both treatments effectively reduced plasma potassium concentrations, with similar time to effect 5.

Safety and Adverse Effects

  • SPS has been associated with adverse effects, including hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and bowel necrosis 4, 6.
  • A case report described a patient who developed hypernatremia after excessive SPS administration, highlighting the need for careful monitoring and dosing 6.
  • The use of SPS may be associated with harm, and standardized guidelines for its use are needed 4.

Comparison with Other Treatments

  • SPS has been compared with newer agents, such as patiromer and SZC, which have improved upon the standard treatment for hyperkalemia 7.
  • A cost-effectiveness analysis found that calcium polystyrene sulfonate (CPS) had slightly better cost effectiveness compared to SZC, although both treatments were equally effective at lowering potassium concentrations 5.

References

1
Guideline

Guideline Directed Topic Overview

Dr.Oracle Medical Advisory Board & Editors, 2025

6
Research

Hypernatremia in a patient treated with sodium polystyrene sulfonate.

International journal of nephrology and renovascular disease, 2010

Related Questions

How much does Kayexalate (sodium polystyrene sulfonate) lower potassium levels?
How to manage hyperkalemia (elevated potassium levels) in an outpatient setting?
Why is lactulose given only 2 days a week to a patient on 3 times (3x) weekly dialysis with chronic hyperkalemia, who also receives Resonium (polystyrene sulfonate) 4 days a week?
What dose of Kayexalate (sodium polystyrene sulfonate) is recommended for hyperkalemia with a potassium level of 6.4?
How to prescribe treatment for hyperkalemia?
What is the most likely diagnosis for a 15-year-old girl presenting with symptoms of weakness, headache, light-headedness, disorientation, facial flushing, profuse diaphoresis, and dry mucous membranes after marching for 3 hours, with vital signs showing tachycardia (elevated heart rate), mild hypotension (low blood pressure), and a urinalysis indicating concentrated urine (high specific gravity)?
What is the next step in evaluating a 34-year-old female patient presenting with weight gain, gait disturbance, and fatigue, with unremarkable laboratory results except for predicted (pulmonary function test) abnormalities, despite her concerns that additional underlying issues exist?
What is the most likely explanation for a 12-month-old girl's developmental status, characterized by pulling to stand, cruising, but not walking independently, saying 'mama' and 'dada', not naming body parts, pointing for attention, not engaging in pretend play, picking up cereal with fingers, and not eating with a spoon?
What is the most likely diagnosis for a 15-month-old boy presenting with fever, leg pain, bruising, petechiae, ecchymoses, shotty lymphadenopathy, mild splenomegaly, severe neutropenia (low neutrophil count), anemia (low hemoglobin), and thrombocytopenia (low platelet count)?
What is the treatment for metformin (biguanide)-associated lactic acidosis?
What is Patiromer (Veltassa)?

Professional Medical Disclaimer

This information is intended for healthcare professionals. Any medical decision-making should rely on clinical judgment and independently verified information. The content provided herein does not replace professional discretion and should be considered supplementary to established clinical guidelines. Healthcare providers should verify all information against primary literature and current practice standards before application in patient care. Dr.Oracle assumes no liability for clinical decisions based on this content.

Have a follow-up question?

Our Medical A.I. is used by practicing medical doctors at top research institutions around the world. Ask any follow up question and get world-class guideline-backed answers instantly.

Ask Question