What are the indications, types, and sites of drain placement, including the use of Radivac (closed suction drain) and ported drains?

Surgical Drains: Indications, Types, and Sites

Overview

Routine prophylactic use of intra-abdominal surgical drains is discouraged in clean and clean-contaminated cases, as they provide no mortality or morbidity benefit and may increase surgical site infections and hospital stay. 1 Drains should be reserved for specific high-risk situations involving significant contamination or fluid collections.

Indications for Drain Placement

When Drains ARE Indicated:

• Delayed surgical intervention (>24 hours from onset) with extensive peritoneal contamination warrants drain placement 1, 2
• Well-localized fluid collections or abscesses ≥3 cm in diameter require percutaneous catheter drainage with 70-90% efficacy 1, 2, 3
• Monitoring for potential bleeding or anastomotic leakage in high-risk repairs may justify drain use 1
• Damage control surgery with temporary abdominal closure benefits from negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) systems 1
• Persistent signs of infection despite antibiotics regardless of collection size 2, 3

When Drains Should Be AVOIDED:

• Early surgery (<24 hours) with good bowel preparation and minimal contamination - drains should be avoided 1, 2
• Elective colorectal surgery - drains show no benefit and are associated with delayed discharge and increased surgical site infections 1
• Perforated appendicitis - drains provide no benefit in preventing intra-abdominal abscesses and may prolong hospitalization 1
• Perforated peptic ulcer with omental patch repair - safe without prophylactic drainage and associated with high drain-related morbidity 1
• Trauma laparotomy for hollow visceral injuries - closed suction drains increase surgical site infection rates 1

Types of Drains

Closed Suction Drains (Active Drainage):

• High-pressure vacuum drains create sealed, closed-circuit systems that efficiently evacuate fluid with easy monitoring 4
• Low-pressure vacuum drains use gentle negative pressure, suitable for outpatient management as patients can easily reinstate vacuum pressure 4
• Closed vacuum drains apply negative suction in a sealed environment, producing tissue apposition and promoting healing 5

Passive Drains:

• Open drainage systems rely on gravity and capillary action without active suction 5, 6
• Less efficient than active systems but may be appropriate in specific contaminated scenarios 7

Specialized Systems:

• Radivac drain: A closed suction drainage system that maintains constant negative pressure through a vacuum reservoir 5, 4
• Ported drains: Allow for irrigation and sampling while maintaining closed system integrity 5

Drain Placement Sites

Intra-abdominal Placement:

• Percutaneous catheter drainage (PCD) is the preferred first-line approach for collections ≥3 cm using either Seldinger technique (95% success for aspiration) or trocar technique (85% success for catheter drainage) 1, 3
• CT guidance is the preferred imaging modality for both diagnosis and guiding percutaneous drainage procedures 2, 3
• Ultrasound guidance is suitable for superficial or large collections and those within or adjacent to solid organs 1
• Catheters should be positioned to achieve complete evacuation without risking injury to adjacent structures 2

Surgical Drain Placement:

• Peri-anastomotic drainage does not reduce anastomotic dehiscence, wound infection, or mortality in colorectal surgery 1
• Subhepatic or subphrenic spaces for upper abdominal procedures when specifically indicated 6
• Pelvis for low pelvic dissections only when extensive contamination present 1, 2

Drain Management and Removal

Removal Criteria:

• Output decreased to <10-20 cc/day with resolution of infection signs 2
• Output <300 mL/24 hours with radiographic confirmation of collection resolution 3
• Radiographic resolution of the abscess on follow-up imaging 2

Management of Persistent Collections:

• Consider catheter manipulation, upsizing, or additional drain placement if collections persist 2
• Prolonged catheterization may be necessary for fistulization to enteric, biliary, genitourinary, pancreatic, or bronchial systems 2

Critical Pitfalls to Avoid

• Do not delay drainage of infected collections ≥3 cm, as this leads to extensive tissue damage and sepsis 3
• Do not rely solely on antibiotics for collections >3 cm, which results in therapeutic failure 3
• Do not use drains routinely in clean cases, as they increase morbidity including fever, wound infections, and wound dehiscence 1
• Drains may occlude or be positioned away from the actual problem, providing false reassurance - only 1 in 20 drains shows enteric content or pus in patients with clinical leaks 1
• Retrograde contamination through drains can cause or maintain infection 7