What are the clinically important gram‑negative coccobacilli and the recommended antimicrobial therapy for infections they cause?

Clinically Important Gram-Negative Coccobacilli and Antimicrobial Therapy

The most clinically important gram-negative coccobacilli are the HACEK group organisms (Haemophilus, Aggregatibacter, Cardiobacterium, Eikenella, Kingella), which should be treated with ceftriaxone or another third-generation cephalosporin for 4 weeks, or ampicillin plus gentamicin as an alternative. 1

Primary Pathogens: HACEK Group

The HACEK group of fastidious coccobacilli represents the most common gram-negative coccobacilli causing serious infections, particularly infective endocarditis in children and adults. 1

First-Line Treatment for HACEK Endocarditis

• Ceftriaxone or another third-generation cephalosporin as monotherapy for 4 weeks (Class I recommendation) 1
• Alternative regimen: Ampicillin plus gentamicin for 4 weeks 1
• For patients who cannot tolerate β-lactam therapy, consultation with an infectious diseases specialist is mandatory 1

Haemophilus influenzae: A Key Coccobacillus

H. influenzae is an aerobic pleomorphic gram-negative coccobacillus requiring X and V factors for growth, and represents a frequently underdiagnosed pathogen in adults. 2

Clinical Presentations

• Acute sinusitis (major causative agent alongside Streptococcus pneumoniae) 2
• Acute epiglottitis (most frequent etiologic agent) 2
• Bacterial pneumonia with distinctive Gram stain appearance 2
• Meningitis in high-risk adults (alcoholics, head trauma with CSF rhinorrhea, asplenia, hypogammaglobulinemia) 2
• Rare manifestations: purulent pericarditis, endocarditis, septic arthritis, obstetrical infections, urinary/biliary tract infections, cellulitis 2

Treatment Approach for H. influenzae

• Ampicillin is first-line unless the organism produces β-lactamase 2
• For minor infections with ampicillin-resistant strains: tetracycline, erythromycin, or sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim 2
• For serious infections with ampicillin resistance or penicillin allergy: chloramphenicol is the best choice 2

Diagnostic Pitfall

• H. influenzae grows poorly on ordinary blood agar unless streaked with S. aureus, and requires chocolate agar for optimal growth 2
• Many laboratories fail to routinely subculture onto chocolate agar, leading to serious underestimation of infection frequency 2
• The organism may be overgrown by other bacteria in mixed cultures 2

Other Gram-Negative Coccobacilli Causing Endocarditis

When non-HACEK gram-negative organisms cause endocarditis (rare, approximately 2% of cases), treatment becomes more complex. 1

Enterobacteriaceae Endocarditis

• For susceptible E. coli or Proteus mirabilis: ampicillin (2 g IV every 4 hours) or penicillin (20 million U IV daily) plus gentamicin (1.7 mg/kg every 8 hours) 1
• Alternative: broad-spectrum cephalosporin plus aminoglycoside 1
• Third-generation cephalosporins (especially ceftriaxone) show excellent activity and deserve further evaluation 1
• For Klebsiella endocarditis: third-generation cephalosporin plus aminoglycoside (gentamicin or amikacin) 1
• Cardiac surgery combined with prolonged antibiotic therapy is a cornerstone of treatment for most gram-negative bacillary endocarditis, particularly left-sided involvement (Class IIa recommendation) 1

Salmonella Endocarditis

• Salmonella species have affinity for abnormal cardiac valves, usually left-sided 1
• Most cases caused by S. choleraesuis, S. typhimurium, and S. enteritidis 1
• Complications include valvular perforation/destruction, atrial thrombi, myocarditis, pericarditis with grave outlook 1
• Third-generation cephalosporin plus aminoglycoside is recommended 1

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Endocarditis

• Predominantly affects intravenous drug users (95% of cases), typically involving normal valves 1
• Associated with major embolic phenomena, neurological complications (53%), ring/annular abscesses, splenic abscesses 1
• Requires aggressive combination therapy and often surgical intervention 1

Critical Treatment Principles

Duration and Monitoring

• HACEK endocarditis: 4 weeks of therapy 1
• Other gram-negative bacillary endocarditis: minimum 6 weeks of combination therapy 1
• Tube-dilution MBC determinations are often necessary to guide therapy for gram-negative aerobic bacilli (Class IIb recommendation) 1

Resistance Considerations

• Nosocomial gram-negative bacillary endocarditis strains may have unpredictable susceptibilities with multiple resistance elements including extended-spectrum β-lactamases 1
• Antimicrobial susceptibility testing is critical, though somewhat capricious due to marked inoculum size effects 2
• Treatment must be guided by identification and susceptibility testing with infectious diseases consultation 1

Morphologic Mimicry Warning

• Acinetobacter baumannii appears as gram-negative diplococci in sputum, resembling Moraxella catarrhalis 3
• Pasteurella multocida and Prevotella intermedia appear as small gram-negative short rods resembling H. influenzae 3
• Antimicrobial therapy can alter bacterial morphology, making gram-negative rods filamentous and pleomorphic 3