What is the approach to assessing abdominal pain, including definition, classification, differential diagnosis, history, physical examination, investigations, empiric treatment, and indications for referral?

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Approach to Assessment of Abdominal Pain

Definition

Abdominal pain is the cardinal symptom of a large number of intra-abdominal pathologies ranging from benign self-limited disease to surgical emergencies requiring immediate intervention. 1, 2


Classification

By Onset and Duration

  • Acute: Sudden onset, typically requiring evaluation within hours to days 3
  • Chronic: Pain persisting beyond 3 months, often representing functional disorders or benign causes 4

By Location (Guides Differential and Imaging)

  • Right upper quadrant: Cholecystitis, hepatobiliary disease, cholangitis 5
  • Right lower quadrant: Appendicitis (most critical to exclude), ectopic pregnancy in women 5, 3
  • Left lower quadrant: Diverticulitis, colorectal pathology 6
  • Epigastric: Pancreatitis, peptic ulcer disease, gastritis 6
  • Diffuse/nonlocalized: Bowel obstruction, mesenteric ischemia, peritonitis 5

Differential Diagnosis

Common Surgical Causes

  • Appendicitis: 15.9-28.1% of acute abdominal pain requiring surgery 6
  • Bowel obstruction: 15% of acute abdominal pain admissions; small bowel (adhesions, hernias, neoplasms), large bowel (cancer, volvulus, diverticular disease) 6
  • Cholecystitis: Evaluated by right upper quadrant pain and ultrasound 5
  • Perforated viscus: Peritonitis, rigid abdomen 6
  • Mesenteric ischemia: Pain out of proportion to examination findings 6

Common Medical Causes

  • Gastroenteritis: Self-limited, no red flags 3
  • Pancreatitis: Elevated lipase, epigastric pain 5
  • Nephrolithiasis: Flank pain, hematuria 7
  • Urinary tract infection: Dysuria, positive urinalysis 7

Gynecologic Causes (Women of Reproductive Age)

  • Ectopic pregnancy: Mandatory β-hCG testing before imaging 5, 7
  • Ovarian torsion: Acute onset, unilateral pelvic pain 5
  • Pelvic inflammatory disease: Fever, cervical motion tenderness 5

Special Population Considerations

  • Elderly: Higher likelihood of malignancy, diverticulitis, vascular causes; atypical presentations 5
  • Post-bariatric surgery: Internal herniation, tachycardia as critical warning sign 6

History

Character of Pain

  • Colicky pain: Bowel obstruction as bowel attempts to overcome occlusion 6
  • Severe pain out of proportion to examination: Mesenteric ischemia 6
  • Sudden onset: Perforation, vascular catastrophe 2
  • Gradual onset: Inflammatory processes (appendicitis, diverticulitis) 3

Associated Symptoms

  • Vomiting: Earlier and more prominent in small bowel obstruction versus large bowel obstruction 6
  • Constipation and inability to pass gas: 85% sensitivity and 78% specificity for adhesive small bowel obstruction in patients with prior surgery 6
  • Rectal bleeding with weight loss: Colorectal cancer 6
  • Fever: Infection, abscess, cholangitis 6

Red Flags Requiring Urgent Evaluation

  • Hemodynamic instability (tachycardia, hypotension): Bleeding or sepsis 6, 5
  • Tachycardia: Most sensitive early warning sign of surgical complications, triggers urgent investigation even before other symptoms develop 6, 5
  • Combination of fever, tachycardia, and tachypnea: Predicts anastomotic leak, perforation, or sepsis 6
  • Signs of peritonitis (rigid abdomen, rebound tenderness): Perforation, ischemia 6
  • Abdominal distension with vomiting: Bowel obstruction 6
  • Asymmetric gaseous distension with emptiness of left iliac fossa: Pathognomonic for sigmoid volvulus 6

Risk Factors

  • Prior abdominal surgery: Adhesive obstruction (55-75% of small bowel obstructions) 6
  • Previous diverticulitis: Diverticular stenosis 6
  • Chronic constipation: Dolichosigmoid and volvulus 6
  • Psychotropic medications: Chronic constipation predisposing to volvulus, especially in elderly institutionalized patients 6
  • Cardiopulmonary, renal, or hepatic comorbidities: Increase surgical risk 6

Physical Examination (Focused)

Vital Signs

  • Fever, tachycardia, hypotension, tachypnea: Infection, bleeding, or complications 6
  • Tachycardia alone: Most critical early warning sign 6, 5

Abdominal Examination

  • Murphy's sign (pain when pressing right upper quadrant): Cholecystitis 6
  • Rebound tenderness, guarding, rigidity: Peritonitis 6
  • Abdominal distension: Bowel obstruction, volvulus 6
  • Empty rectum on digital examination: Classic for sigmoid volvulus 6
  • Asymmetric gaseous distension with emptiness of left iliac fossa: Pathognomonic for sigmoid volvulus 6

Critical Pitfall

  • Absence of peritonitis does not exclude bowel ischemia: Patients with sigmoid volvulus often lack peritoneal signs despite established ischemia due to chronic distension masking examination 6

Investigations

Laboratory Tests (Initial Workup)

  • Complete blood count (CBC): Leukocytosis indicates infection or inflammation 5, 7
  • Comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP): Liver function tests (ALT, AST, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin) for hepatobiliary pathology 5, 7
  • Serum lipase: More specific than amylase for pancreatitis 5, 7
  • Urinalysis: Urinary tract infection or nephrolithiasis 5, 7
  • β-hCG: Mandatory in all women of reproductive age before imaging to rule out ectopic pregnancy 5, 7

Additional Laboratory Tests Based on Clinical Suspicion

  • C-reactive protein (CRP): Superior sensitivity and specificity compared to WBC for ruling in surgical disease; elevated CRP and abnormal imaging are significant predictive factors for hospital admission 6, 8
  • Lactate: Elevated suggests ischemia or sepsis, but normal levels do not exclude internal herniation or early ischemia 6, 7
  • D-dimer: Consider if mesenteric ischemia suspected 6, 7
  • Procalcitonin: Helpful for assessing inflammatory response in suspected sepsis 6
  • Blood cultures: If sepsis suspected 7

Imaging Strategy by Pain Location

  • Right upper quadrant: Ultrasonography is initial test of choice for cholecystitis and hepatobiliary disease 5, 3
  • Right lower quadrant: CT abdomen/pelvis with contrast for suspected appendicitis 5, 3
  • Left lower quadrant: CT abdomen/pelvis with contrast for suspected diverticulitis 6
  • Pelvic pain: CT abdomen/pelvis with contrast 6
  • Nonlocalized/diffuse pain: CT abdomen/pelvis with IV contrast is preferred due to broad differential; changes leading diagnosis in 51% of patients and alters admission decisions in 25% 5

Imaging Strategy by Suspected Condition

  • Acute cholecystitis: Abdominal ultrasound 6
  • Acute appendicitis: CT abdomen/pelvis with contrast 6
  • Kidney stones: Non-contrast CT abdomen/pelvis 6
  • Bowel obstruction: CT abdomen/pelvis with contrast 6
  • Mesenteric ischemia: CT angiography of abdomen 6

Expected Findings

  • Appendicitis: Periappendiceal fat stranding, appendiceal diameter >6mm, appendicolith 3
  • Cholecystitis: Gallbladder wall thickening, pericholecystic fluid, positive sonographic Murphy's sign 5
  • Bowel obstruction: Dilated bowel loops, air-fluid levels, transition point 6
  • Diverticulitis: Colonic wall thickening, pericolonic fat stranding, abscess 6

Empiric Treatment

Resuscitation and Stabilization

  • IV fluids: For hemodynamic instability or dehydration 1
  • NPO status: If surgical intervention likely 1
  • Nasogastric decompression: For bowel obstruction with vomiting 6

Analgesia

  • Opioids or NSAIDs: Pain control does not mask surgical findings and should not be withheld 1

Antibiotics (When Indicated)

  • Broad-spectrum antibiotics: For suspected intra-abdominal infection (appendicitis, diverticulitis, cholangitis, peritonitis) 1
  • Initiate early if sepsis suspected: Do not delay for imaging 1

Specific Conditions

  • Sigmoid volvulus: Endoscopic decompression if no peritonitis 6
  • Adhesive small bowel obstruction: Conservative management with NPO, IV fluids, nasogastric decompression if no signs of strangulation 6

Indications to Refer

Immediate Surgical Consultation

  • Signs of peritonitis (rigid abdomen, rebound tenderness) 6
  • Hemodynamic instability (tachycardia, hypotension) 6, 5
  • Suspected perforation or ischemia 6
  • Bowel obstruction with signs of strangulation (fever, tachycardia, peritonitis) 6
  • Acute appendicitis 6
  • Acute cholecystitis not responding to conservative management 5

Urgent Specialist Referral

  • Suspected mesenteric ischemia: Vascular surgery 6
  • Ectopic pregnancy: Obstetrics/gynecology 5
  • Ovarian torsion: Obstetrics/gynecology 5
  • Pancreatitis with complications: Gastroenterology or surgery 5

Elective Referral

  • Chronic abdominal pain without red flags: Gastroenterology after organic pathology excluded 4
  • Functional disorders (irritable bowel syndrome): Consider psychological support (cognitive therapy) and pharmacological options; repetitive testing not recommended 4

Critical Pitfalls

Diagnostic Pitfalls

  • Failing to obtain β-hCG in women of reproductive age before imaging: Delays diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy, a life-threatening condition 5, 7
  • Relying on conventional radiography: Limited diagnostic value in most patients with abdominal pain; should not be routinely ordered 5, 7
  • Assuming normal lactate excludes ischemia: Normal lactate does not exclude internal herniation or early ischemia 6
  • Assuming absence of peritonitis excludes bowel ischemia: Chronic distension can mask peritoneal signs despite established ischemia 6
  • Ignoring tachycardia: Most sensitive early warning sign of surgical complications; triggers urgent investigation even before other symptoms develop 6, 5
  • Underestimating atypical presentations in elderly: May require more thorough evaluation even if laboratory tests are normal 5

Management Pitfalls

  • Overuse of CT scans: Minimize ionizing radiation exposure, especially in young patients; consider ultrasound first for suspected appendicitis 6
  • Withholding analgesia: Pain control does not mask surgical findings and should not be delayed 1
  • Repetitive testing in functional disorders: Once functional pain is established, repetitive testing is not recommended 4
  • Delaying antibiotics in sepsis: Initiate early if sepsis suspected; do not delay for imaging 1

Special Population Pitfalls

  • Post-bariatric surgery patients: Classic peritoneal signs often absent; tachycardia is most critical warning sign; consider internal herniation even with normal lactate 6
  • Elderly institutionalized patients on psychotropic medications: Classic patient for sigmoid volvulus 6

References

Research

Abdominal pain: an approach to a challenging diagnosis.

AACN advanced critical care, 2014

Research

Acute abdominal pain.

The Medical clinics of North America, 2006

Research

Evaluation of acute abdominal pain in adults.

American family physician, 2008

Research

Chronic Abdominal Pain in General Practice.

Digestive diseases (Basel, Switzerland), 2021

Guideline

Evaluation of Abdominal Pain

Praxis Medical Insights: Practical Summaries of Clinical Guidelines, 2025

Guideline

Acute Abdominal Pain Evaluation

Praxis Medical Insights: Practical Summaries of Clinical Guidelines, 2025

Guideline

Laboratory Tests for Patients with Abdominal Pain

Praxis Medical Insights: Practical Summaries of Clinical Guidelines, 2025

Professional Medical Disclaimer

This information is intended for healthcare professionals. Any medical decision-making should rely on clinical judgment and independently verified information. The content provided herein does not replace professional discretion and should be considered supplementary to established clinical guidelines. Healthcare providers should verify all information against primary literature and current practice standards before application in patient care. Dr.Oracle assumes no liability for clinical decisions based on this content.

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