What is the recommended treatment for a patient with superimposed pneumonia due to COVID-19 and bacterial infections?

Treatment of Superimposed COVID-19 and Bacterial Pneumonia

For patients with confirmed superimposed bacterial pneumonia on COVID-19, treat with standard community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) regimens: β-lactam plus macrolide or fluoroquinolone for non-critically ill patients, and add anti-MRSA coverage for critically ill/ICU patients, while obtaining comprehensive cultures before initiating antibiotics. 1

Risk Stratification and When to Treat

Non-Critically Ill Patients (General Ward)

• Use β-lactam (ampicillin-sulbactam, ceftriaxone, or cefotaxime) plus either macrolide (azithromycin or clarithromycin) or doxycycline 1, 2
• Alternative: Respiratory fluoroquinolone monotherapy (levofloxacin or moxifloxacin) 1, 2
• Target pathogens include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus 1, 2

Critically Ill Patients (ICU/Mechanically Ventilated)

• Use β-lactam plus macrolide OR β-lactam plus fluoroquinolone 1
• Add empirical anti-MRSA coverage in selected critically ill patients 1
• Consider double antipseudomonal coverage and/or anti-MRSA antibiotics based on local epidemiology 1
• These patients have higher risk of bacterial coinfection and require empirical therapy while awaiting cultures 1

Critical Diagnostic Approach Before Treatment

Obtain Comprehensive Cultures First

• Collect blood and sputum cultures before starting antibiotics 1, 2
• Perform urinary pneumococcal antigen testing in all patients 1
• Consider Legionella urinary antigen testing per local guidelines 1
• Syndromic diagnostic testing (multiplex PCR) using endotracheal or BAL specimens may improve antibiotic stewardship in critically ill patients 1, 2

Common Pitfall: Nasopharyngeal swab multiplex PCR is NOT recommended to guide treatment decisions 1

Use Biomarkers Judiciously

• Procalcitonin (PCT) >0.5 ng/mL suggests higher possibility of bacterial infection 1
• However, do NOT use biomarkers alone to decide when to start antibiotics, especially in non-critically ill patients 1
• PCT may be elevated in COVID-19 from inflammatory activation rather than bacterial infection 1, 2, 3
• C-reactive protein has better diagnostic accuracy than white cell count or PCT for bacterial infections (AUC 0.822), but sensitivity/specificity remain <90% 3

When NOT to Prescribe Antibiotics

Restrict Antibiotics in These Situations:

• Mild-to-moderately ill COVID-19 patients with low initial PCT levels (<0.25 ng/mL) 1
• Patients not meeting formal CAP criteria despite COVID-19 diagnosis 1
• COVID-19 patients receiving immunomodulatory agents (corticosteroids, IL-6 inhibitors) without other evidence of bacterial infection 1

Key Evidence: Bacterial coinfection at admission occurs in <4% of COVID-19 patients 4, and empirical antibiotics do not prevent deterioration or mortality in COVID-19 pneumonia without documented bacterial infection 3, 5

Secondary/Nosocomial Infections

Healthcare-Associated Pneumonia (HAP/VAP)

• For secondary bacterial respiratory infections in non-critically ill patients: use single anti-pseudomonal antibiotic 1
• For critically ill/ICU patients: consider double antipseudomonal and/or anti-MRSA coverage based on local epidemiology 1
• Target pathogens include S. aureus, Enterobacterales, P. aeruginosa, A. baumannii, and H. influenzae 1
• Risk of secondary infections reaches up to 20% in severely ill COVID-19 patients 1

Important Finding: In mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients, pan-drug resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (41.1%) and multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (27.4%) are common 6

Multidrug-Resistant Pathogen Coverage

• Expand coverage for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and MRSA only in patients with prior infection with these pathogens 1
• If cultures are negative and patient improving, narrow expanded therapy within 48 hours 1, 2

De-escalation and Duration

Aggressive De-escalation Strategy

• Stop antibiotics if representative cultures obtained before therapy show no pathogens after 48 hours of incubation 1
• Early de-escalation or discontinuation recommended in patients with low PCT levels (<0.25 ng/mL) 1
• Use low procalcitonin values early in confirmed COVID-19 to guide withholding or early stopping of antibiotics 1, 2

Treatment Duration

• 5 days of antibiotic therapy is adequate for most patients with COVID-19 and suspected bacterial coinfection upon improvement 1, 2
• Continue only if signs, symptoms, and inflammatory markers fail to improve 1

Critical Caveat: Despite low bacterial coinfection rates (6%), prolonged antibiotic courses (median 7 days) are commonly prescribed, highlighting need for active antimicrobial stewardship 5

Special Considerations

Fungal Superinfections

• Fungal VAP occurs in up to 68% of critically ill mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients 6
• Risk factors include diabetes mellitus, chest disease, hypothyroidism, longer mechanical ventilation duration, and corticosteroid/Tocilizumab use 6
• Candida species (75.4%), Aspergillus (16.4%), and Mucor (8.2%) are most common 6