What are the indications for surgery in a patient with traumatic brain injury, particularly those with severe injuries, increased intracranial pressure, or mass effect on imaging studies?

Surgical Indications for Traumatic Brain Injury

All salvageable patients with life-threatening brain lesions require urgent neurosurgical consultation and intervention after control of any life-threatening hemorrhage. 1

Immediate Surgical Indications

The following lesions mandate urgent neurosurgical intervention based on imaging findings and clinical presentation:

Mass Lesions Requiring Evacuation

• Symptomatic epidural hematoma of any location requires immediate surgical removal 1
• Acute subdural hematoma with thickness >5 mm AND midline shift >5 mm requires evacuation 1
• Brain contusions with mass effect should be removed after failure of first-line medical management of intracranial hypertension 1
• Acute hydrocephalus requires urgent drainage via external ventricular drain 1

Skull Fractures Requiring Surgery

• Open displaced skull fractures with CSF leak or brain tissue exposure require closure 1
• Closed displaced skull fractures with brain compression (thickness >5 mm, mass effect with midline shift >5 mm) require surgical intervention 1
• Depressed skull fractures with significant mass effect warrant surgical elevation 2, 3

Decompressive Craniectomy for Refractory Intracranial Hypertension

Decompressive craniectomy should be considered as a rescue option for refractory intracranial hypertension in carefully selected patients through multidisciplinary discussion. 1

Evidence and Outcomes

• Large temporal craniectomy (>100 cm²) with dural plasty reduces mortality from 48.9% to 26.9% in refractory intracranial hypertension 1
• However, this mortality benefit comes at the expense of increased poor neurological outcomes (8.5% vs 2.1% vegetative state) 1
• Favorable outcomes at 6 months are similar between decompressive craniectomy (27.4%) and medical management (26.6%) 1
• Bifrontal craniectomy for diffuse injury is associated with worse outcomes and should be avoided (70% poor outcome vs 51% with medical management) 1

Patient Selection Considerations

• Age is a critical factor—most studies excluded patients >60-70 years 1
• Timing matters: early craniectomy (within 72 hours) versus rescue therapy for refractory ICP have different risk-benefit profiles 1
• Unilateral temporal craniectomy shows better outcomes than bifrontal approaches 1

External Ventricular Drainage

External ventricular drainage is suggested for persistent intracranial hypertension despite sedation and correction of secondary brain insults. 1

• CSF drainage from normal or small ventricles can markedly reduce ICP even with small volumes 1
• Neuronavigation can facilitate safe EVD insertion 1
• EVD serves dual purposes: therapeutic ICP reduction and diagnostic ICP monitoring 1

Timing and Prioritization in Polytrauma

In polytrauma patients, control life-threatening hemorrhage first, then immediately address life-threatening brain lesions. 1

Management Algorithm for Polytrauma with TBI

1. Exsanguinating hemorrhage requires immediate intervention (surgery/interventional radiology) for bleeding control 1
2. After hemorrhage control, perform urgent neurological evaluation (pupils + GCS motor score) and brain CT to determine severity 1
3. Maintain systolic blood pressure >100 mmHg or MAP >80 mmHg during all interventions—avoid "permissive hypotension" in TBI patients 1, 2, 4
4. All salvageable patients with life-threatening brain lesions require urgent neurosurgical consultation after bleeding control 1

ICP Monitoring as Surgical Intervention

ICP monitoring should be implemented in patients at risk for intracranial hypertension (coma with radiological signs of IH) regardless of need for emergency extra-cranial surgery. 1

• Indicated in severe TBI (GCS ≤8) with abnormal CT findings 1, 3
• Target ICP <20 mmHg in adults and children ≥6-8 years 1, 3
• Consider lower thresholds in younger children due to age-dependent physiologic ICP values 3

Special Populations

Pediatric Considerations

• Same surgical indications apply to children as adults for mass lesions and skull fractures 3
• Maintain high suspicion for non-accidental trauma in children <2 years 3
• ICP thresholds may need adjustment based on age 3

Patients with Lucid Interval

• Urgent neurosurgical consultation required even if currently stable, as deterioration can be sudden 2
• Do not delay neuroimaging based on current clinical stability 2
• Epidural hematoma with mass effect is the classic indication in this population 2

Critical Pitfalls to Avoid

• Do not delay neurosurgery for mass lesions meeting criteria while pursuing prolonged medical management 1
• Do not perform bifrontal craniectomy for diffuse injury—outcomes are worse than medical management 1
• Do not use permissive hypotension strategies in TBI patients requiring surgery 1, 2, 4
• Do not assume stability in patients with lucid intervals or mild GCS scores (13-15) with intracranial injury—13.1% progress on repeat imaging and neurosurgical intervention may be needed 2, 5