What is the management approach for a patient presenting with acute coronary syndrome (ACS), including myocardial infarction (MI) and unstable angina?

Acute Coronary Syndrome: Comprehensive Overview for IM Rounds

Definition and Classification

Acute coronary syndrome encompasses a spectrum of myocardial ischemic states resulting from atherosclerotic plaque rupture, ulceration, or erosion with subsequent intraluminal thrombus formation. 1 The syndrome divides into two major categories based on ECG findings:

• STEMI (ST-Elevation MI): Persistent ST-segment elevation >20 minutes reflecting acute total coronary occlusion, requiring immediate reperfusion therapy 1
• NSTE-ACS (Non-ST-Elevation ACS): Includes NSTEMI (with elevated troponin indicating myocardial necrosis) and unstable angina (ischemia without necrosis) 1

Critical distinction: 5-10% of ACS patients have non-obstructive coronary disease on angiography, particularly women, so don't assume all ACS requires significant stenosis 1

Pathophysiology

The underlying mechanism is atherosclerotic plaque rupture with varying degrees of thrombosis and distal embolization, causing supply-demand mismatch. 1 Type 1 MI results from plaque instability, while Type 2 MI occurs when other conditions (hypotension, tachyarrhythmias, anemia, hypoxemia, coronary spasm, SCAD) create oxygen supply-demand imbalance without primary plaque rupture 1

Initial Presentation and Diagnosis

Immediate Actions (First 10 Minutes)

Obtain a 12-lead ECG within 10 minutes of arrival and compare to prior ECGs if available. 2 Look for:

• Persistent ST-elevation or new LBBB → STEMI pathway 1
• Transient ST-elevation, ST-depression, T-wave inversions, or pseudo-normalization → NSTE-ACS 1
• Normal ECG doesn't exclude ACS 1

Administer aspirin 150-300 mg loading dose immediately to all patients without contraindications. 3, 2 This is non-negotiable and should happen before anything else.

Start continuous cardiac monitoring immediately - sudden ventricular fibrillation is the major preventable cause of early death 4

Troponin Protocol

Use high-sensitivity cardiac troponin with the 0h/1h algorithm as first-line for rapid rule-out or rule-in. 1, 2 If unavailable, use the 0h/2h algorithm 1. Measure at:

• 0 hours and 1 hour with validated algorithm 1, 2
• Additional measurement at 3-6 hours if first two are inconclusive and clinical suspicion remains high 2

Key point: High-sensitivity troponin has increased NSTEMI detection by 20% relative to standard assays, with reciprocal decrease in unstable angina diagnosis 1

Risk Stratification

Use the GRACE risk score for prognosis estimation - this is the recommended validated tool 1, 3

Very High-Risk Criteria (Immediate Invasive Strategy <2 Hours)

Proceed to immediate coronary angiography if ANY of the following present: 1, 3, 2

• Hemodynamic instability or cardiogenic shock
• Recurrent/ongoing chest pain refractory to medical therapy
• Life-threatening arrhythmias or cardiac arrest
• Mechanical complications of MI
• Dynamic ST-segment or T-wave changes

High-Risk Criteria (Early Invasive Strategy <24 Hours)

Perform early angiography for: 1, 2

• Elevated troponin with rise/fall pattern
• Dynamic ST-segment or T-wave changes
• GRACE score >140

Intermediate-Risk Criteria (Invasive Strategy <72 Hours)

Consider angiography within 72 hours for: 1, 2

• Diabetes mellitus
• Renal insufficiency (eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m²)
• Prior CABG
• Left ventricular dysfunction

Pharmacological Management

Antiplatelet Therapy

Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) for 12 months is mandatory unless excessive bleeding risk. 1, 3, 2

For P2Y12 inhibitor selection, the hierarchy is:

1. Ticagrelor (180 mg load, then 90 mg BID): Preferred for all moderate-to-high risk patients regardless of management strategy 1, 2
2. Prasugrel (60 mg load, then 10 mg daily): Consider in preference to ticagrelor for patients proceeding to PCI, but DO NOT give if coronary anatomy unknown 1, 5
3. Clopidogrel (300-600 mg load, then 75 mg daily): Reserve for patients who cannot receive ticagrelor/prasugrel or require oral anticoagulation 1, 2, 6

Critical caveat: Routine pre-treatment with P2Y12 inhibitors is NOT recommended when coronary anatomy is unknown and early invasive management is planned 1

Anticoagulation

Initiate parenteral anticoagulation immediately with ONE of the following: 3, 4

• Enoxaparin 1 mg/kg SC q12h: Preferred for conservative management, lower HIT risk 4
• Fondaparinux 2.5 mg SC daily: Less bleeding than enoxaparin in conservative management 4
• Unfractionated heparin: Alternative option 3, 4
• Bivalirudin (0.75 mg/kg IV bolus, then 1.75 mg/kg/h): Option for PCI 1

Anti-Ischemic Therapy

For ongoing chest pain: 3, 4

• Sublingual nitroglycerin 0.4 mg q5min × 3 doses for immediate relief 4
• IV nitroglycerin starting 5-10 mcg/min, titrate by 10 mcg/min q3-5min until symptoms resolve or BP limits reached 4

Beta-blockers should be started promptly in all patients without contraindications, targeting heart rate 50-60 bpm. 3, 4 Contraindications include active heart failure, hemodynamic instability, or high-degree AV block.

Additional Therapies

High-intensity statin therapy must be initiated immediately regardless of baseline LDL. 4, 2 This is for plaque stabilization, not just lipid lowering.

ACE inhibitors are indicated for: 4

• Anterior MI
• Persistent hypertension
• Left ventricular dysfunction
• Heart failure
• Diabetes mellitus

Revascularization Strategy

PCI Approach

Use radial access as standard approach unless overriding procedural considerations. 3 This reduces bleeding complications.

Drug-eluting stents are preferred over bare-metal stents for any PCI. 3

For STEMI, perform primary PCI within 120 minutes of presentation. 3

Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Inhibitors

Consider GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors in high-risk patients undergoing PCI, particularly with elevated troponin. 4 Don't use routinely.

Monitoring and Complications

Cardiac monitoring duration: 1, 2

• Minimum 24 hours for low-risk NSTEMI patients 1, 2

• 24 hours for patients at increased arrhythmia risk 1

Provide supplemental oxygen only if arterial saturation <90%. 4 Routine oxygen is not beneficial.

Special Populations

Elderly (≥75 Years)

Apply the same diagnostic and interventional strategies as younger patients, but adjust antithrombotic dosing based on renal function. 3 Don't withhold invasive strategies based on age alone.

Chronic Kidney Disease

Use low- or iso-osmolar contrast at lowest possible volume. 3 Adjust medication doses for renal function.

Diabetes

Screen all NSTE-ACS patients for diabetes and monitor glucose frequently in known diabetics or those with admission hyperglycemia. 3

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

1. Don't delay aspirin - give it before anything else, even before troponin results 3, 2
2. Don't pre-treat with prasugrel or ticagrelor if anatomy unknown and early invasive strategy planned - wait until anatomy defined 1
3. Don't assume normal ECG excludes ACS - serial troponins are essential 1
4. Don't forget that unstable angina patients derive less benefit from aggressive antiplatelet therapy and early invasive strategy than NSTEMI patients 1
5. Don't use routine oxygen - only if hypoxemic 4

De-escalation Strategy

De-escalation of P2Y12 inhibitor (switching from prasugrel/ticagrelor to clopidogrel) may be considered for patients unsuitable for potent platelet inhibition. 1 This can be done unguided by clinical judgment or guided by platelet function testing or CYP2C19 genotyping.

Long-Term Management (Post-Discharge)

Continue for at least 12 months: 2

• Aspirin 75-150 mg daily indefinitely
• P2Y12 inhibitor for 12 months
• High-intensity statin
• Beta-blocker for at least 6 weeks (longer if LV dysfunction)