What are the causes of rhabdomyolysis?

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Causes of Rhabdomyolysis

Rhabdomyolysis is caused by multiple factors including trauma, excessive muscular activity, medications/toxins, metabolic disorders, infections, and temperature alterations, with the common pathophysiological pathway being skeletal muscle breakdown and release of intracellular contents into circulation. 1

Major Categories of Causes

1. Trauma and Direct Injury

  • Crush injuries
  • Compartment syndrome
  • Severe burns
  • Prolonged immobilization (especially after falls or substance overdose)
  • Surgical procedures (particularly with prolonged positioning)

2. Excessive Muscle Activity

  • Intense exercise (particularly in untrained individuals)
  • Seizures
  • Status epilepticus
  • Delirium tremens
  • Electrical shock

3. Medications and Toxins

  • Statins: Most common drug-related cause
    • Risk increases with higher doses and when combined with certain medications 2
    • Particularly high risk with:
      • Cyclosporine, tacrolimus
      • Macrolide antibiotics (azithromycin, clarithromycin, erythromycin)
      • Azole antifungals (itraconazole, ketoconazole, fluconazole)
      • Calcium antagonists (mibefradil, diltiazem, verapamil)
      • HIV protease inhibitors
      • Fibrates (particularly gemfibrozil) 2
  • Alcohol and illicit drugs
    • Cocaine, amphetamines, MDMA ("ecstasy")
    • Alcohol (both acute intoxication and withdrawal)
  • Other medications
    • Red yeast rice supplements (contain lovastatin) 2
    • Colchicine
    • Neuroleptics
    • Zidovudine
    • Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

4. Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders

  • Electrolyte abnormalities
    • Hypokalemia
    • Hypophosphatemia
    • Hyponatremia or hypernatremia
  • Diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar states
  • Hypothyroidism
  • Hyperthyroidism

5. Infections

  • Viral (influenza, HIV, Epstein-Barr virus)
  • Bacterial (Legionella, Streptococcus)
  • Fungal infections
  • Malaria

6. Temperature-Related Causes

  • Hyperthermia/heat stroke
  • Malignant hyperthermia
  • Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
  • Hypothermia

7. Hereditary Disorders

  • Metabolic myopathies
  • Enzyme deficiencies affecting muscle metabolism
  • Mitochondrial disorders

8. Autoimmune Conditions

  • Statin-associated autoimmune myopathy (characterized by muscle weakness, marked CK elevation, HMGCR antibodies, and necrotizing myopathy) 2
  • Polymyositis
  • Dermatomyositis

Risk Factors and Prevention

Certain populations are at higher risk for developing rhabdomyolysis:

  • Athletes during transition periods (first 4 days of new training cycles) 2
  • Patients on multiple medications with potential interactions
  • Individuals with underlying metabolic disorders
  • Trauma patients with crush injuries

Prevention strategies include:

  • Appropriate hydration during exercise
  • Gradual progression of exercise intensity
  • Careful medication management to avoid interactions
  • Proper training protocols for athletes, especially during transition periods 2
  • Early recognition of compartment syndrome 2

Clinical Presentation

The classic triad of symptoms includes:

  • Muscle pain and weakness
  • Dark urine (myoglobinuria)
  • Elevated creatine kinase levels (typically >5 times normal, approximately >1000 IU/L) 2

In severe cases, CPK levels above 75,000 IU/L are associated with high incidence of acute kidney injury 2.

Complications

Major complications include:

  • Acute kidney injury
  • Electrolyte abnormalities (particularly hyperkalemia)
  • Compartment syndrome
  • Disseminated intravascular coagulation
  • Cardiac arrhythmias

Understanding these diverse causes is essential for prompt diagnosis and management of rhabdomyolysis, which can be life-threatening if not recognized and treated appropriately.

References

Research

The other medical causes of rhabdomyolysis.

The American journal of the medical sciences, 2003

Guideline

Guideline Directed Topic Overview

Dr.Oracle Medical Advisory Board & Editors, 2025

Professional Medical Disclaimer

This information is intended for healthcare professionals. Any medical decision-making should rely on clinical judgment and independently verified information. The content provided herein does not replace professional discretion and should be considered supplementary to established clinical guidelines. Healthcare providers should verify all information against primary literature and current practice standards before application in patient care. Dr.Oracle assumes no liability for clinical decisions based on this content.

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