What is pulse pressure variation (PPV) in mechanically ventilated patients?

Pulse Pressure Variation (PPV) in Mechanically Ventilated Patients

Pulse pressure variation (PPV) is a dynamic hemodynamic parameter that predicts fluid responsiveness with high specificity (91%) and moderate sensitivity (72%) in mechanically ventilated patients, serving as a valuable tool for guiding fluid management decisions. 1

Definition and Mechanism

• PPV refers to the respiratory-induced variations in pulse pressure (systolic minus diastolic pressure) during mechanical ventilation 1
• It occurs due to heart-lung interactions where positive pressure ventilation alters intrathoracic pressure, affecting venous return and cardiac output 1
• PPV is calculated as the difference between maximum and minimum pulse pressure divided by the mean pulse pressure during the respiratory cycle 1

Clinical Utility

Predicting Fluid Responsiveness

• PPV is superior to static measurements like central venous pressure (CVP) for predicting fluid responsiveness 1
• A high PPV (>12-13%) suggests that stroke volume will increase with fluid administration 1
• PPV has an area under the ROC curve of 0.73-0.89 for predicting fluid responsiveness, significantly better than CVP (0.64) 2, 3
• The optimal threshold for predicting fluid responsiveness ranges from 10-13%, depending on the clinical context 3, 4

Gray Zone Approach

• PPV values between 9% and 13% represent a "gray zone" where fluid responsiveness cannot be reliably predicted 3
• Approximately 24-62% of patients fall within this indeterminate range 2, 3
• When considering the risk of fluid administration in hypoxemic patients, the gray zone narrows to 2-13% 2

Prerequisites for Valid PPV Assessment

• Patients must be in passive mechanical ventilation (no spontaneous breathing efforts) 1
• Tidal volumes should be ≥8 ml/kg (PPV accuracy decreases with lower tidal volumes) 2
• Regular cardiac rhythm is required (atrial fibrillation invalidates PPV) 1
• Normal chest wall compliance (PPV is less reliable with low lung compliance) 1

Special Considerations

In ARDS Patients

• PPV interpretation is challenging due to low tidal volumes and low lung compliance typically used in these patients 1
• If PPV is high despite low tidal volume or lung compliance, it strongly suggests fluid responsiveness 1
• In severe right ventricular failure, high PPV may indicate RV afterload dependence rather than fluid responsiveness 1
• Passive leg raising can help differentiate: decreased PPV during leg raising suggests fluid responsiveness, while no change suggests RV afterload dependence 1

During One-Lung Ventilation

• PPV predicts fluid responsiveness during protective one-lung ventilation (tidal volume 6 ml/kg, PEEP 5 cmH2O) with an optimal threshold of 5.8% 5
• PPV is not reliable during conventional one-lung ventilation (tidal volume 10 ml/kg, no PEEP) 5

Practical Application

• Arterial line placement allows real-time monitoring of blood pressure and PPV 1
• Echocardiography should complement PPV assessment to evaluate ventricular function and detect acute cor pulmonale 1
• When PPV indicates fluid responsiveness, carefully evaluate the risk-benefit ratio of fluid administration, especially in ARDS patients where excessive fluid may worsen pulmonary edema 1
• In cases of significant PPV with hemodynamic instability, consider:
  • Assessing RV function with echocardiography 1
  • Adjusting respiratory settings (driving pressure, plateau pressure, PEEP) 1
  • Limiting hypercapnia 1
  • Considering prone positioning in ARDS patients 1
  • Using norepinephrine if appropriate 1

Limitations

• Not valid during spontaneous breathing efforts 1
• Less reliable with low tidal volumes (<8 ml/kg) commonly used in lung-protective ventilation 2
• Unreliable in patients with arrhythmias, particularly atrial fibrillation 1
• May be affected by right ventricular dysfunction 1
• Requires an arterial line for accurate measurement 1